Culture and context of Catherine of Siena and Hafez

 Catherine of Siena:

            Catherine of Siena grew up and lived in a time of turbulence and change in both Italy and Europe as a whole. She was born at the start of the Black Death that ravaged Europe killing a third of its population. Catherine’s home of Siena was reduced from a population of 50-60 thousand people in 1330 to less than twenty thousand in 1348 (Vauchez). The disease took the life of Catherine’s twin sister, and in an outbreak of it in 1374, Catherine lost three siblings and 8 nieces and nephews (Malone p.193). However, Europe was going through massive political, economic, and religious changes as well, all of which have left distinctive fingerprints on Catherine’s life and in her ministries. Catherine was born and raised in a wealthy family of mercantilists and wool dyers (Butler p.19) who were given increased political power and influence when ‘The Nine’ (a group of urban partisans of the Italian bourgeoisie) were overthrown and replaced by ‘The Twelve’ in 1355. As a member of the upper-class Sienese society, (with two of her brothers even being in the government) Catherine not only saw the immense wealth of the city but also the great corruption that accompanied it (Vauchez). Siena was one of the major economic centers of Italy, however, that wealth was not shared evenly among its population. Clergy represented 1% of the population yet owned 50% of the wealth in the city (Malone p.192). For someone like Catherine who had a deep understanding of the Christian call to poverty, this rightfully ignited her righteous anger. It was such people that she did not stop deploring in her many letters (Vauchez). However, the most significant change that Catherine witnessed happened in the political sector. She sought to unite all of humanity under Christ in love (Malone pp.196-197). One way she sought to accomplish this was by returning the papacy to Rome which she eventually accomplished in 1377 (O’Driscoll p.10). However, this victory of hers was short-lived as the church shortly thereafter underwent The Great Schism in which the church was divided in two after more than one person tried to claim the title of ‘Pope’. The last 18 months of Catherine’s life were spent desperately trying to reunite the church (O’Driscoll pp.10-11) and she is said to have died from a broken heart (Malone p.174).

 

Hafez:

            ‘The House of Knowledge’ and ‘The City of Saints and Poets’ are two of the many ways people have described the Shiraz into which Hafez was born and lived. It was a hub for culture, literature, art, and philosophy often being compared to Florence Italy (Leonard p.3) Despite the city’s political instability and violence (Limbert p.49), it fostered the ideal environment for the making of a great poet like Hafez. Following the fall of Mongol rule, Iran and Iraq fractured into many segments with each being controlled by a local dynasty including, but not limited to the Injuids (1325–1353), the Muzaffarids (ca. 1314–1393), and Jalayirids (late 1330s to 1432). The arts, including poetry, saw a particular flourishing under the rule of Shah Shaykh Abu Ishaq. This is partly due to the generous patronage that kings and rulers gave to poets to do their bidding such as lampooning political rivals and sending positive images of the king/ruler abroad (Dominic pp.12-13). During his lifetime Hafez had his fair share of the spoils of political patronage serving such notable people of power and influence as Shah Shuja who was a poet himself. (Dominic p.3) These rulers also lent their wealth to the funding of many colleges, universities, and Sufi centers across Shiraz which contributed to the city’s intellectual flourishing as well as to Hafez’s (Leonard p.3) However, the literary talent of Shiraz was not just limited to the praise and uplifting of those in authority. For instance, the anti-clerical and anti-Sufi sentiment was prominent in the writings of Shiraz’s poets including Hafez (Dominic p.11). In particular, Hafez was extremely critical of false Sufis (Leonard). Nor was it limited to male and heteronormative standards. There were several prominent female poetic contemporaries of Hafez including Jahan-Malik Khatun (Dominic p.6), and a fair amount of the poetry of the time included homoerotic themes and undertones (Domonic p.9).

 

Similarities in the culture and context of Catherine of Siena and Hafez:

            There are several notable similarities in the cultures and contexts in which Catherine of Siena and Hafez lived. Most notable is the fact that they both grew up in cities that were major economic, social, and intellectual centers. They also both came from wealthy, financially stable backgrounds and households. The notable difference between the two mystics lies in how they responded to their respective environments. Whereas Hafez fully took advantage of the wealth that surrounded him through the use of royal patronage, Catherine condemned the wealth and excess exhibited by those around her and threw herself into a life of asceticism and poverty. However, that is not to say that Catherine, like Hafez, did not have many connections with prominent and influential people in her time. For instance, it was Catherine’s many letters to Pope Gregory XI that convinced him to move the papacy back to Rome. Hafez, like Catherine, was also critical of several aspects of society that he found displeasure in including debauchery and false Sufis (Limbert p.73)

 

Sources:

 

Butler, Josephine Elizabeth Grey. Catharine of Siena : A Biography. 3d ed., H. Marshall, 1894.

 

Catherine, and Mary O’Driscoll. Catherine of Siena-- Passion for the Truth, Compassion for Humanity : Selected Spiritual Writings. Edited by Mary O’Driscoll, New City Press, 1993.

Dominic Parviz Brookshaw. Hafiz and His Contemporaries : Poetry, Performance and Patronage In Fourteenth Century Iran. I.B. Tauris, 2019. https://bereacollege.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1089126002..

 

Leonard Lewisohn. Hafiz and the Religion of Love in Classical Persian Poetry. I.B. Tauris, 2010. https://bereacollege.on.worldcat.org/oclc/680041068.

 

Limbert, John W. Shiraz in the Age of Hafez : The Glory of a Medieval Persian City. University of Washington Press, 2004. https://bereacollege.on.worldcat.org/oclc/758005969.

 

Malone, Mary T. Women & Christianity. Orbis Books, 2001.

 

Vauchez, André. Catherine of Siena : A Life of Passion and Purpose. Paulist Press, 2018. https://bereacollege.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1022075124.

Experiences and Beliefs: Underhill and Crowley

Evelyn Underhill was an early 20th-century English writer and mystic who delved deeply into spirituality and mysticism, drawing from both her personal experiences with the ethereal and her academic studies. Underhill believed that the core of mystical experiences was their capacity to extend beyond the confines of the self and create a deep sense of oneness and connection with the infinite. These experiences, which she had personally had through prayer and reflective meditation her whole life, formed the basis of her spiritual philosophy and anchored her conviction that mysticism is a universal phenomenon that transcends religious and cultural divides. In her book "Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Man's Spiritual Consciousness," Underhill outlined the stages of mystical development, from initial awakening to the ultimate union with the divine. She emphasized the importance of spiritual activities like prayer, meditation, and contemplation as instruments for cultivating a deeper relationship with the divine and promoting personal transformation. Underhill also emphasized the role of love and compassionate service in the mystical journey, seeing genuine mystical experiences as catalysts for growing empathy and social responsibility toward others. Underhill's exploration of mysticism expanded beyond traditional boundaries by including psychological findings. By combining psychology with mysticism, she provided a new perspective on the human psyche's role in spiritual development and the transformational power of mystical encounters. In essence, Evelyn Underhill's mystical experiences and beliefs represented a tapestry of spiritual insights, emphasizing the universality of the mystical experience, the importance of spiritual practices, and the integration of love, service, and psychological understanding in the pursuit of spiritual awakening.     Aleister Crowley, a controversial figure in the fields of mysticism and occultism, was profoundly inspired by his mystical experiences and esoteric research. Crowley claimed throughout his life to have encountered supernatural beings and received deep revelations that he believed guided his spiritual journey. The first being in Stockholm on New Year's Eve in 1896, and the second experience was in Egypt in 1904. These experiences inspired him to create Thelema, a spiritual philosophy based on the concept of individual choice and the quest for spiritual enlightenment through self-expression and freedom from societal limitations. Crowley claimed that the rule "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," which was central to Thelema, embodied the essence of true freedom and personal fulfillment. Crowley's study of ceremonial magick and ritualistic practices—which he used as a means of calling upon spiritual forces and achieving altered states of consciousness—was closely connected to his mysticism. Crowley blended elements of numerous mystical traditions, including Eastern mysticism, Kabbalah, and ancient Egyptian spirituality, into his rituals in an attempt to uncover secret dimensions of reality and transcend the confines of the everyday world. Furthermore, Crowley's focus on sexuality as a route to enlightenment set his mystical views apart since he saw sexual energy as a powerful force for metamorphosis and the fusion of the spiritual and material worlds.

Both Underhill and Crowley’s spiritual journeys were sparked by their mystical encounters, which had a tremendous impact on both Evelyn Underhill and Aleister Crowley. Drawing on her own experiences with prayer and introspective meditation, Underhill thought that mystical encounters may help one transcend the boundaries of the self and cultivate a profound sense of unity with the divine. Her spiritual philosophy was based on these interactions and emphasized the mystic's universality in a variety of religious and cultural situations. In a similar vein, Crowley's mystical experiences—such as his purported encounters with supernatural beings and revelations from Stockholm and Egypt—also served as inspiration for the creation of Thelema, a spiritual philosophy that emphasizes personal expression as a means of achieving spiritual enlightenment and freedom from social constraints. Despite Underhill and Crowley having a foundation of mystical experiences in common, they differed in how they interpreted and dealt with these experiences. Crowley's mystical ideas were distinguished by his emphasis on the individual will and rejection of traditional morality, whereas Underhill highlighted the significance of love, compassion, and service as essential components of the mystical experience. Furthermore, Crowley differed from Underhill's more conventional approach to mysticism in that he explored ceremonial magick and ritualistic activities and integrated sexuality into his mystical teachings. So, although their mystical experiences had an impact on both of them, their beliefs and practices represented different journeys fashioned by their understanding of the divine.

Laubach & Gardener, The culture and Context.

 

Frank Laubach, the Apostle of the Illiterate, was born in 1884 in Benton, Pennsylvania. Grew up around religious teachings, with his father being from the Disciples of Christ, and his mother with deep Baptist roots, combined with his inherent fascination for the Methodist church across the street from his home allowed for his life to be consistently exposed to religious teachings. From a young age, he always knew he wanted to do missionary work, and at 45 he made one of the largest contributions to his mission of "Literacy Education, and Spiritual Reformation." This being building a connection with the Moro Muslim people of the Philippines. Going and creating not only the first Morano language dictionary but also raising literacy rates through his "Each One Teach One" Program, in which chiefs and those who were literate had to teach those who were not, in which the students would then go on and continue to teach others, creating a beautiful cycle of literacy education. 

His second contribution was brought forth from his discovery and creation of "living every moment with Jesus" by bringing in his "Game of Minutes" where one keeps god in their mind a second of every minute. 

Gerald Gardner, attributed to being the Father of Modern Wicca, was born in 1884 to an upper-middle-class family in Blundellsands, Lancashire. Born with asthma, he was unable to participate in the multiple across-the-world trips his family took part in, usually being left to the care of his nursemaid. Of whom has mixed reception of their personality. Around 1900, Com the Nursemaid married a Tea plantation owner, and took Gerald with them, his family approving with the hope of teaching Gerald the way of the Tea Trade. In 1907, Gardner moved away on his own back to Britain for a few months, spending time with another side of his family, whom his parents readily avoided due to conflicting religious interests. It was during this time Gerald's interest in the Paranormal began to blossom, as the Patriarch openly talked about witches and fae, even claiming to have some fairies living in his garden. In 1939, Gerald became a member of the Rosicrucian order, and grew fond of a few of the minor members, stating that "I would have gone through hell and high water for them." 

in 1947, Gerald was introduced to Alistar Crowly, and was quickly initiated, Alistair had Gerald rapidly rise up to the rank of O.T.O, which allowed him to indoctrinate others on Crowly's behalf. but after Crowly's death in 1948, Gerald stepped down from his position, and focused on touring and educating himself on other esoteric religions. Somewhere before or after this little series of events, Gerald went on to preach about Wicca, inviting the public press to write about it, which led to many negative writings such as "Devil Worshipping Witches in London!" However, Gerald was never dismayed by the publicity and continued to encourage it. 

Edgar's and George's culture/context

    Even though Edgar Cayce and George Gurdjieff were born around the same time, they were born in entirely different parts of the world, Edger in the United States and George in Armenia, shortly after moving to Kars, Turkey. This ensured that they had many different experiences and exposures to different cultures.

    George I. Gurdjieff, from a young age, was exposed to a variety of cultures and religions because of where he spent his childhood, in Kars, Turkey. The land of Kars belonged to many cultures throughout the Previous centuries, including Armenians, Turks, Persia, Ottomans, Russia, Byzantines, and Mongols. The origin of this land is disputed; it is between Armenian, Turkish, and Georgian origins. The article "Kars Fortress Stands as a Monument to a Turbulent Past" by Richard F. Selecer (2021) explains "the Kingdom of Armenia, which in ad 301 became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion." As well, the Armenians built the first fortress in Kars Due to the threat of the Muslims. From this point, The Byzantines took over, eventually passing it to the Turkish Empire. Then, it is juggled between the Turkish and the Georgian Empire, passing through the Mongols into the hands of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the Ottoman-Persian War, Kars was on the border of the Ottoman, Turkish, and Persia (Selcer, 2021). After about 50 or so years, The Russians tried to take the Kars from the Turks but failed. They tried again and succeeded about 20 years later, only to turn around and return it to the Turks. The Russians retook Kars in 1878. George and his family moved to Kars shortly after it was retaken (The Gurdjieff Legacy Foundation). According to "A Day in Kars: Exploring Turkey's Eastern Frontier." Larrance K states, "Kars is one of the only cities in Turkey to have been controlled by the Russians."

    The exposure to these cultures greatly affected George's knowledge in terms of languages and culture. Although George is ethnically Greek on his father's side and Armenian on his mother's side, it should be no surprise, with the city he grew up in, that George knew as many as ten languages, not all of which he learned where he grew up, he learned during his travels to find his purpose/meaning. The languages George knew include "Armenian, Pontic Greek, Russian, Georgian, Turkish, and other dialects of the Asian and Middle Eastern countries he traveled to" (Shvangiradze, 2023). As George got older, his curiosity about life and Asian culture grew, and he left his home in his early adult years to travel the world and satisfy his curiosity.

    Throughout Edgar Cayce's life, he lived in many states, including Kentucky, Alabama, and Virginia. Within his lifetime, he lived through WW1, the great depression, and most of WW2, some of which he did predict, which is explained in The Edgar Cayce documentary (2005). Growing up, Edgar lived in a typical Christian American home. They lived and worked on a farm in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Living on a farm is commonly known to teach hard work and a good work ethic, even though it was not until age 16 that his uncle gave him a job on the farm (Sugrue, 2015, p55).   His family attended church, and the first time Edgar attended a church was at the age of ten; the story the preacher read that day got Edgar hooked on the bible (Sugrue, 2015, p41). After that one time, he wanted to do and know anything he could about the subject. Not only was church a big part of his life, but he also cared so much for his mother. Throughout the first few chapters of his biography, There is a River (2015) by Thomas Sugrue, and everyone seems to tell him that he needs to stay with his mother until he is married, "'You’ve got to stay with your mother,’ he said. ‘That’s a son’s first duty…” (p74).   

    There were only a few events of the world that truly affected Edgar’s life. Those events were when Adlai Stevenson was elected vice president, and the stock market crash started the great depression. When Adlai Stevenson was elected as vice president, Edgar and his father attended a celebration. While he was there, he witnessed a shooting between two civilians. “But when one man pulled a gun from his pocket and shot another man who was only ten feet away from where he stood with his father” (Sugrue, 2015, p54). The Great Depression shut down Edgar’s biggest dream, his hospital, where he would give readings and help the people who needed it. According to Edgar Cayce’s Website, A.R.E., in the article titled “History of the Edgar Cayce Hospital,” the hospital was only open from February of 1929 to around October of the same year when the stock market crashed. The Great Depression shut down Atlantic University, another organization Edgar founded (Ellwood, Robert, 2024).

    Both of these men had very different lives and experiences. Geroge was widely exposed to other cultures, while Edgar lived a typical American life and mainly stuck to his family’s culture/beliefs. These men share their determination to fulfill their life’s purpose once they know it. One of the main differences between these men was that Edgar knew from a child what he wanted his life to revolve around. George did not know that early in life. George needed to travel to answer many questions before he knew what he wanted his life to be about.

 

Ellwood, Robert (2024, March 18) Cayce, Edgar. Encyclopedia of Religion. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cayce-edgar

History of Edgar Cayce Hospital, Edgar Cayce’s A.R.E. (2023, August 21). Edgar Cayce’s A.R.E. https://edgarcayce.org/about-us/tour-the-campus/history-of-hospital/

Shvangiradze, T. (2023, June 26). George Gurdjieff: Mostly the man, but mainly the myth. TheCollector. https://www.thecollector.com/george-gurdjieff-man-myth/

Selcer, R. F. (2021, December 15). Kars Fortress stands as a monument to a turbulent past. HistoryNet. https://www.historynet.com/kars-fortress/

SpaceDocument. (2015, May 20). Edgar Cayce Documentary [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Duh02wdMgA

Sugrue, T. (2015). There is a river: The story of Edgar Cayce. TarcherPerigee.

The Gurdjieff Legacy Foundation — The Teaching for Our Time. (n.d.). Gurdjieff’s Early Years. https://gurdjiefflegacy.org/70links/early_years.htm

Lawrence, K. (2021, June 20). A Day in Kars: Exploring Turkey’s Eastern Frontier. Sailingstone Travel. https://sailingstonetravel.com/kars-guide/

 

Expereinces and Beliefs: (Thomas Merton and Hazrat Inayat Khan)

Thomas Merton had many beliefs and mystical experiences that greatly impacted his spiritual journey. Living a simple and contemplative life as a monk, Merton found peace and joy in prayer, meditation, and sharing life with others in the monastery. Beyond his Christian tradition, he explored other spiritual paths like Zen Buddhism and Sufism, believing all religions lead to the same divine truth. This openness led him to advocate for people of different faiths to come together, learn from each other, and work for peace (Sheldrake, 2013). Merton wasn't just a man of prayer; he was also a man of action. He passionately stood up against war, racism, and any form of injustice (Sheldrake, 2013). Despite criticism, he believed that spirituality and social justice went hand in hand. He saw caring for others and the world around us as a natural expression of our spiritual connection to each other and God. Central to Merton's spiritual life was contemplative prayer, a simple yet profound practice of silently being present to God's presence. He also cared deeply about the environment, believing that caring for the environment is a spiritual responsibility (Pearson, 2001). Further, Merton's mystical experiences deepened his spiritual understanding. One of his most memorable experiences happened in the busy streets of Louisville, Kentucky, where he suddenly felt a deep connection with every person around him, seeing each one as a sacred expression of God's love (Erickson 2024). He also dreamed of encountering Sophia, a symbol of the divine feminine. He embraced the feminine within himself and others, enabling him to delve into the lost feminine archetype within Christianity. Another powerful experience occurred during his travels in Sri Lanka, where he felt a profound sense of calm and unity while standing before ancient Buddha statues (Mccaslin, n.d). These experiences expanded Merton's understanding of spirituality and encouraged him to embrace love, compassion, and unity as guiding principles. Ultimately, Thomas Merton's legacy inspires people today, reminding us to seek spiritual growth, stand up for justice, and cherish our connection to each other and the world around us.

Hazrat Inayat Khan had many beliefs and mystical experiences that greatly impacted his spiritual journey. To begin, he firmly believed in the essential oneness of all religions, emphasizing themes of love, harmony, and beauty in his U.S. and European lectures. He advocated for a dual approach to spirituality, combining inner disciplines of prayer and meditation with active engagement in religious communities to foster a deeper connection and sense of belonging. Rejecting labels, Khan initially refrained from categorizing his teachings, fearing division among those with preconceived notions about Islam. However, he eventually identified his views as part of Sufism, promoting human equality and emphasizing the need for a unified humanity for global peace (Shelquist). Profoundly connected to music, Khan saw it as a means for expressing and experiencing spiritual connection, describing it as a means of delving into the depths of emotion and divine closeness (International Sufi Movement, 2021). In his later years, Khan underwent a series of transformative visions, each corresponding to a stage of human consciousness development and Dante's journey through Hell, purgatory, and heaven. The first vision, described as encountering Hell, led him to reflect deeply on his actions and inner turmoil. The second vision resembled a journey through purgatory; Khan grappled with attachments and limitations, striving to transcend them. The final vision brought profound bliss and illumination, leaving him purified and dedicated to serving others with unity and compassion (Dinosky, 2010). Concerned by the absence of prayer and meditation techniques in Western religious traditions, Khan advocated for their incorporation, referring to them as "the science of the soul," and shared these spiritual practices with individuals from diverse backgrounds.

Both Thomas Merton and Inayat Khan embarked on spiritual journeys that deeply impacted their lives and the lives of those around them. One similarity between the two is their belief in the essential unity of all religions and their emphasis on themes of love, harmony, and compassion in their teachings. Merton and Khan advocated for interfaith dialogue and the importance of a unified humanity for global peace. Additionally, they both experienced mystical encounters that enriched their spiritual understanding and guided their paths, though in different ways. While Merton's mystical experiences often centered around a deep connection with humanity and encounter with the divine feminine and Buddhism, Khan's journey included transformative visions leading to reflections on spirituality and service to others. Despite these differences in their mystical experiences, both Merton and Khan shared a commitment to embracing love, compassion, and unity as guiding principles in their spiritual journeys, leaving behind legacies that continue to inspire seekers of spiritual growth and social justice today.

Sources:

Buttry, D. (2018). Hazrat Inayat Khan. Global Peace Warriors. https://globalpeacewarriors.org/hazrat-inayat-khan/

Dinosky, J. (2010). A short biography of Hazrat Inayat Khan. http://www.om-guru.com/html/saints/khan.html

Erickson, L. (2024). Thomas Merton’s Mystical Vision in Louisville - Spiritual Travels. Spiritual Travels. https://www.spiritualtravels.info/spiritual

-sites-around-the-world/north-america/kentucky-a-thomas-merton-tour/thomas

-mertons-mystical-vision-in-louisville/

Hazrat Inayat Khan - New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hazrat_Inayat_Khan

International Sufi Movement. (2021). Hazrat Inayat Khan. Inayatiyya.

https://inayatiyya.org/hazrat-inayat-khan/

Mccaslin, S. (n.d.). Merton’s Mystical Visions: a Widening Circle. https://thomasmertonsociety.org/Edge/McCaslin.pdf

Pearson, P. (2001). Thomas Merton’s Life and Work- Thomas Merton Center.

The Thomas Merton Center at Bellarmine University. https://merton.org/

chrono.aspx

Sheldrake, P. (2013). Spirituality: A brief history. Wiley- Blackwell. https://book

shelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781118472347

Shelquist, R. (n.d.). The Life and Teachings of Hazrat Inayat Khan- A Brief 

Biography. The Spiritual Message of Hazrat Inayat Khan. https://wahiduddin

.net/hik/hik_ origins.htm

Joshua's Mystics Culture/Context

 

St. John of the Cross

 

            The culture of Spain at the time St. John of the Cross was alive is integral in understanding how he contributed to mysticism as spiritual researchers know it today. It is essential to know about common customs in the country of Spain at the time of his life and how they impacted his beliefs. Another aspect of the saint's culture at the time of his life that is vital in understanding his beliefs is the country's social climate. 

           St. John of the Cross was born in 1542 in Spain, and the customs of the Spanish people during this time influenced the beliefs that he would later share with the world. In the sixteenth century, it was widespread for the predominate Christians or Catholics to oppose Jewish people or Muslim people. In the book Inquisition by Toby Green, in 1497, many Jewish people were forced to convert to Christianity in Portugal (2009). In 1502, people following Islam were expelled from Granada in Spain (p. xvi). This expulsion, among other actions made to those with different faiths, would have directly impacted how he thought of people not practicing the Catholic faith as he was. It is fascinating how Spain developed their relationship with people of multiple faiths. 

    During his youth, St. John lived in Spain under the rule of Charles 1 or Charles V, depending on the context in which one looks at the monarch. King Charles ruled Spain from 1516-1556. Spain was at a point in its history when it expanded beyond Europe, known as the Spanish Inquisition. The monarchy managed to push into North Africa. The push led to a mixture of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish people converging under Spanish influence. The culture of the area was different than before since Spain was pushing against Muslim and Jewish people closer to the actual country in Europe. Eventually, the city they inhabited fostered territorial disputes and conflicts between the religious groups (Liang,2011, pp. 139-170). Spain's expansion of territory and religious friction could have transformed St. John's understanding of place and God into what we know today. 

Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī

 

Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi was born during the time of the Mughal Empire, like St. John, during the Spanish monarchy. Both lived in times of empirical control. This commonality of cultures influenced their outlooks on the divine as they both were connected to wealth in some way, allowing them to be a part of the religious majority in their respective countries. For the Mughal Empire, many people outside of the royal court were Muslim, but most of the people were Hindu. Understanding the Mughal Empire further is vital to understanding Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi better.

       The Mughal Empire took up most of what we know as India in Central Asia and lasted for around 200 years, 1526-1707 (Schimmel, 2004, p.7). The term Mughal was developed by Arab-speaking people from the word Mongol, which was used to describe those who acted barbaric (Schimmel, 2004, p.15). Understanding how the language is used to indicate these people can better reflect what is expected in their culture from outside and internal perspectives.

           Language was critical to the Mughal Empire's culture, which impacted Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. Historical accounts of the dynasty and regal life have been recorded by the Mughals (Schimmel, 2004, p.15). Even though extensive amounts of daily life were recorded about the courts, there were few accounts of everyday people in the Mughal Empire. However, they were recorded by foreigners traveling to the area (Schimmel, 2004, p.17). This value placed on language is reflected in the work of this mystic as he wrote poetry about the divine.

                                                                    Sources:

Green, T. (2009). Inquisition : the reign of fear (1st U.S. ed). Thomas Books.

Liang, Y.-G. (2011). The Fernández de Córdoba Lineage and the Transfer of Frontier Expertise to Algeria, 1512–1558. In Family and Empire: The Fernandez de Cordoba and the Spanish Realm (pp. 139–170). University of Pennsylvania Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fj69j.10

Schimmel, A., & Robinson, F. (2004). The empire of the great Mughals : history, art and culture (B. K. Waghmar, Ed.; C. Attwood, Trans.). Reaktion Books.

(If any information seems off or if there are any other points to add feel free to let me know! I am always looking for more sources.)

Culture and Context of Julian of Norwich and Lalleshwari

 

Julian of Norwich lived in Norwich, England from 1343 to 1416 which was a time of great social change in not only England but in the whole world. In not only Norwich, but in the more widespread area of Europe, society was recovering from the Black Death of 1348. Julian would have been five years old at the time, so she most likely did not remember life before this great change in society. This could be compared to how young kids of today might not be able to recall societal norms of the world prior to COVID-19 in 2020. Along with the Black Death, there was a rise in populations of cities, due to the decline of serfdom and the rise of industry jobs. For Julian, her city of Norwich was a booming industrial city on the river Wensum that had many shipping ports that brought in not only goods, but a great sum of money for the people of Norwich. However, Julian did not get to experience this wealthy port city once she isolated herself in the Church of Julian. This could be seen as a paradox because although she lived in the heart of a bustling city and could see it all out of her cell window, Julian kept herself in isolation to grow herself on her mystical journey.

            Lalleshwari, also known as Lal Ded, lived somewhere 1320 and 1355 (exact birth year is not known) to 1392 in the Pandrethan area of Kashmir. During this time, Kashmir and India were not identified as the nation states we know them as today. India was under the rule of Delhi Sultanate from 1206 to 1526 AD which was an Islamic empire based out of Delhi, India. During Lal Ded’s lifetime, the specific dynasty that was in power was the Tughlaq who tried to set up a fully Islamic military, administration, and culture in India. This did not fully happen due to the extremely culture ties and beliefs revolving around Hinduism. However, this dynasty did bring in new agricultural practices and bettered the infrastructure by creating canals, bridges, and roads for travel. Specifically in Kashmir, they had their own rulers in defiance from the Tughlaq Dynasty. By the time Lal Ded was born, Kashmir was under rule of Sahamera, an Islamic ruler who was once a minister under Kota, a female ruler. Sahamera came into power by killing his rival Bhatta and imprisoning Kota, officially placing Kashmir under Muslim rule. Lal Ded did not really feel the impacts of this cultural change because she was first in prisoned in her own relationship and family, then she wondered around the mountains free from society and cultural indifferences.

Julian of Norwich and Lal Ded both lived during a time of great social changes, specifically in the shift between agricultural to industrial society that along brought religious and transportation changes. Just like in Lal Ded’s Kashmir, Julian’s England switched agricultural practices, allowing for a higher yield in food, thus increasing the standard of living and population. For Julian, this allowed her to see more out of her cell window and listen to other’s experiences. However, for Lal Ded, this agricultural change allowed her to travel the mountains in a way that would sustain her nutritional needs, but she also interacted with new people with new experiences. These interactions the two women had with others coincides with the higher standard of living in the fact that ways of transportation were bettered, and trade increased across the world. Therefore, even though Julian and Lal Ded both experienced the new standard of living, the experiences were in different forms, Julian in a city and Lal Ded in the wilderness of the mountains.

Resources:

Accardi, Dean. “Orientalism and the Invention of Kashmiri Religions”, International Journal of

Hindu Studies, Springer Nature B.V. 2018, 26 November 2018.

Brumafriend. (2019, October 26). What Was Life Like in 14th Century England? Medium. https://brumafriend.medium.com/what-was-life-like-in-14th-century-england-ec08a1316973

“Delhi Sultanate | Muslim Kingdom, India.” Encyclopeadia Britannica, 2019,

www.britannica.com/place/Delhi-sultanate.

Mishra, Patit Paban. “Tughlaq Dynasty.” World History Encyclopedia,            

            www.worldhistory.org/Tughlaq_Dynasty/.

“History of Jammu and Kashmir.” Www.esamskriti.com, www.esamskriti.com/e/History/Indian-

            History/History-of-Jammu-and-Kashmir-2.aspx.

Accessed 28 Feb. 2024.

Sheldrake, Philip. Spirituality: A Brief History, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2013,

www.booktopia.com.au/spirituality-philip-sheldrake/prod9781118472354.html.

 

Childhood and Family of Julian of Norwich and Lalleshwari

 

Julian of Norwich was born in 1343 in Norwich, England and lived in this town her whole life. As a child, Julian belonged to the Roman Catholicism faith, growing up in the Church. Very little is known of her childhood, such as whether her name was given to her at birth or if it was given to her because she lived at the St. Julian Church as a mystic; however, historians have found out some information on her life as an adult prior to becoming the mystic we know her as, although some of it is still up for debate. For example, there was a woman named Julian of Erpingham who was of a noble family in Norwich at the same time of the mystic Julian. Some people believe Julian of Erpingham and of Norwich are the same person, which having this belief would tell us that Julian had at least three children and two husbands (one died, then she remarried). Whether this theory be true or not, it is all the knowledge and speculation we have on Julian of Norwich prior to her revelations at age 30.

Lalleshwari, also known as Lal Ded or Lalla, was born sometime between 1320 and 1355 in Pandrethan, Kashmir. She was born into a Pandit Clan, a native clan in Kashmir that follows Hinduism, thus Lalleshwari grew up studying Hindu religious texts all the way up to age 12. The reason for the halt in her studies was her marriage into a harsh family. This family that she was married into would mock her and treat her like a lesser human, for example, her mother-in-law would place pebbles in Lalleshwari’s food as a joke. Lalleshwari’s own husband would break the water pitchers she would use to collect the family’s water in, which would only set back the rest of the family because she was never known to complain about her mistreatment. Lalleshwari got to the point where after filling up the pitchers to her best ability, she would cross the river to study Hinduism and pursue yoga under Sidh Srikanth at the Lord Shiva’s temple then go back home in the evening. At age 26, Lalleshwari left the marriage and the cruel family behind to become a mystic.

Julian of Norwich and Lalleshwari both lived a life of faith that had both mystery and hardships placed in their journey that led them to the become the mystics we know them as today. Both Julian and Lalleshwari lived in the same time period and where both brought up in their own religious communities. However, because these two women lived on extremely different parts of the world, their experiences in their communities were also extremely different. For example, Julian lived a life in a small city, where women stayed in the house it can be assumed, however Lalleshwari lived in the countryside where it was known that she spent her time outside, where she fulfilled duties for the house, like filling up the water pitchers.

Resources

Holm, Filip, host. “Lal Ded- The Mystic Poetess of Kashmir.” Let’s Talk Religion,

Spotify app, 15 August 2023.

“Lal Ded: The Mystic of Kashmir | Kashmirica.” Www.kashmirica.com, 16 Jan. 2021, www.kashmirica.com/blog/lal-ded/.

 

Mark, Joshua. “Julian of Norwich.” World History Encyclopedia, 3 June 2019, www.worldhistory.org/Julian_of_Norwich/.

Sheldrake, Philip. Spirituality: A Brief History, 2^nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 

    2013, Print.

 

The Childhood and Families of Saint Isaac the Syrian and Ali ibn Abi Talib

Saint Isaac the Syrian and Ali ibn Abi Talib, two revered figures in their respective faiths, embody profound wisdom and spiritual insight. Delving into their childhoods and family backgrounds unveils intriguing narratives that shaped their character and beliefs. While Isaac hailed from a Christian background, Ali emerged from the heart of Islam. Despite their differing origins, both figures radiate timeless lessons and virtues that continue to inspire generations across cultures and religions.

 

Saint Isaac the Syrian, also known as Isaac of Nineveh, was born in the year 613 in the region of Qatar in the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire). Little is known about his early years, yet his profound spiritual journey and ascetic lifestyle have left an indelible mark on Christian mysticism. From what we do know, Isaac and his brother both enrolled in the Mor Mattai Monastery (Monastery of Matthew) in Qatarye (modern-day Iran). Isaac's childhood was likely steeped in the rich Christian traditions of the region due to the very heavy Christian influences in the region facilitated by the Byzantine Empire’s Christian nature due to Emperor Constatine, where faith and devotion were integral parts of everyday life. Although he and his brother grew up in the same monastery, Isaac took an offer to become the Bishop of Ninevah, a region of the Assyrian Empire, and left the monastery. Isaac abdicated from the position after 5 months and decided to join the monastery of Rabban Shapur. He spent his latter years of life living an ascetic, isolated way of life, even going as far as to miss his own brother’s funeral as to not break his isolation (Britannica).

 

In contrast, Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin, and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, was born into the influential Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca Arabia (modern-day Saudi Arabia), perhaps in the Kaaba, around September 9^th, 600 AD. His childhood was deeply intertwined with the rise of Islam, as he grew up in the household of the Prophet Muhammad. Ali’s father, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, raised Ali for around 4 years before succumbing into poverty and having Muhammad, Ali’s cousin, take the role of raising Ali to show how much Muhammad respected Abi (Afsaruddin & Nasr, 2019). Ali's family played a central role in the propagation of Islam, shaping his character with values of courage, righteousness, and unwavering devotion to God. Ali was noted as to been one of the very first to accept Muhammad’s teachings of Islam. At around 11 years old, Ali supported Muhammad’s call to Islam after Muhammad’s wife, Khadija, did (Gleave, 2008). From the ages of 11-22, Ali supported the small Muslim community, helping the poor especially. Ali was announced as Muhammed’s brother and successor during Muhammed’s invitation of the relatives. Where Muhammed declared his prophetic mission. (Afsaruddin & Nasr, 2019). Ali had 9 wives, one of which being the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. He also supposedly had 17 daughters, and either 11, 14, or 18 sons (Vaglieri, 2012).

            It can be said that both Isaac the Syrian and Ali ibn Abi Talib were both born into similarly environmentally tough desert regions. From a young age, both were very quickly enrolled into their mystical beliefs and practices through being introduced to their respective faiths. Both of the mystics were born within the Arabian peninsula during the 7^th century AD. This time was filled with much influence from the Christian majority of the Byzantine Empire and Christian believers within the Assyrian Empire. It was later sideswept by the progress of the growth of the Islamic faith within the peninsula. Isaac and Ali both faced criticism and theological conflicts by non-believers.

 

References:

Fontaine, P. F. M. (2000, January 1). Mohammed. Brill.com; Brill. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004502345/B9789004502345_s011.xml

George Thomas Kurian, & Smith, J. D. (2010). The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature (Vol. 2, p. 385). Scarecrow Press.

Gleave, R. M. (2008, December 8). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE — Brill. Referenceworks.brillonline.com; Brill. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/

Isaac of Nineveh | Syrian bishop | Britannica. (n.d.). Www.britannica.com. Retrieved February 21, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Isaac-of-Nineveh

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, & Asma Afsaruddin. (2019). Ali | Biography & Facts. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph

Vaglieri, V. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition — Brill. Referenceworks.brillonline.com; Brill. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/